Learning Models

Mark J. Norton

Document History:

Jan. 9, 1996 mjn Created.



1.0 Introduction

In order to better understand how learning structures might be categorized and described, this document attempts to develop support by describing various models of teaching and learning occurs. In each of these models, a single teacher and student is represented. This can be extended to include multiple techers and/or multiple students, but is not relevant to the classification of Learning Structures, where the majority of interaction is one-to-one with the system.

The term teacher is used here as the source of knowledge to be convey. The teacher may be a person, active system (Learning Application), or passive device (Book). The teacher is assumed to be cooperative and truthful.

The term student is used to represent the person desiring to learn the knowledge that the teacher possesses. It is interesting to speculate how these models might be applied to teaching an active system (machine learning), but this is beyond the scope of this document. The process of recording knowledge is also not covered. It is assumed that the student is cooperative and self-motitvated, though this is not always the case.

Memorization Learning Model

2.1 Memorization Learning Model

Teacher: active
Student: passive
Interactive: limited to test responses

The cyclical learning model is drawn from Eric Vogt’s 1994 paper, “Learning Out of Context. In this paper, he describes a Learning Organization which has a learning model consisting of Experiment ‹ Observer‹ Reflect ‹ Abstract. Similar models can be developed for describing how knowledge is presented and learned in a Learning Application.

This particular model might be characterized as memorization model. It begins with the presentation of knowledge. This might be accomplished an many imaginable manners, but it can be generalized as a communication from the teacher to the student as “this is true”. The student receives this information and attempts to memorize it. In doing so, associations are formed with previously learning material. New facts can be abstracted from the combination of the new and old.

Few of use have perfect memory, so the teacher probes the student for understanding of the material presented. This also can be accomplished by a variety of methods, but can be summed up as testing the new knowledge. The loop is closed depending on the results of the test. If the test is positive, new material can be presented. If not, it can be repeated, perhaps in a slightly different form.

Reference Learning Model

2.2 Reference Learning Model

Teacher: passive
Student: active
Interactive: yes, student initiated

This is a more abreviated approach to learning. Here, the student is self-directing the learning process and attempts to memorize information from some form of reference material. Access to this material could be provided in any number of ways: a book, Hierarhically organized topics in a CDROM database, student initiated question and answer with a knowledgable person, etc. Naturally, there is also abstraction and generalization occuring in the student as well, but the emphasis is on rapid accumulation of information.

Information Stream Learning Model

2.3 Information Stream Learning Model

Teacher: active
Student: passive
Interactive: no

The Information Stream Learning Model is similar to the Reference Model in that there is a direct transfer of knowledge from a teacher/source to the student with no testing or verfication of material presented. However, where the Reference Model is interactive and initiated by the student, the Information Stream Model is not interactive. Once initiated, it plays to the end.

This is a fairly common form of learning being present in all movie, video, an lecture forms of presentation. Any form of presentation is which linear in nature and non-interactive falls into this model.

Again, memorization, generalization, and abstraction are occuring in the student, but the student has not control to persue connections that she might deem relevant. What is presented must be retained and verfied at a later date.

Self Test Learning Model

2.4 Self Test Learning Model

Teacher: passive
Student: active
Interactive: yes, student initiated

Given that the student is in possession of a certain body of knowledge, there is often a desire to verify that knowledge. The Self Test approach is initiated by the student. There are two forms of this model: the declarative and interogative. In the declarative form, the student states what is believed to be true. The teacher in turn verfies that statement or corrects it. In the interogative form, the student prompts the teacher to ask a question. The question is asked, and the student answers. If the answer is correct, a new question is posed. If not, a corrected version of the information is presented for the student to memorize.

Memorization also occurs on correct statements or answers to questions by re-inforcing verified knowledge.

Socratic Learning Model

2.5 Socratic Learning Model

Teacher: active
Student: passive
Interative: yes, teacher initiated

In this model, rather than the student guiding the learning process, the teacher assumes control through the mechanism of carefully ordered questions. The process leads from the testing of students knowledge. Is a fact known? If not, it is presented. Creative use of questions can also lead the student to make generalizations or abstractions deemed valuable by the teacher.

This method relies on the teacher having an in-depth understanding of the student, the subject area being taught, and teaching methods. As such, it is a difficult one to automate.

Graded Test Learning Model

2.6 Graded Test Learning Model

Teacher: active
Student: passive
Interactive: no

This is the classic test situation. A student is presented with a series of questions to answer from the teacher. No feed back is given at this time. The student responds from the knowledge that has been learned to answer each question to the limit of his understanding. Once completed, the test is graded and results returned to the student.

Some information is conveyed to the student in this model: each question is verify as correct, partially correct, or wrong. This presents the student to initiate another learning mechanism to overcome the deficiencies identified by the test process. In the more extreme forms of the this model, the student is only told if he passed or failed the exam, thus leaving him wondering what was correct.

This can also be blended with other approaches to provide better feedback to the student. Corrections might appear on the test itself. The Test Review is a common method to convey correct answers to a previously administered test. Note that the test review is a separate event from the Graded Test.

Discovery Learning Model

2.7 Discovery Learning Model

Environment: passive
Student: active
Interactive: yes, student initiated

There are many occations when knowledge can be gained not from another person, but from the evironment around us. Here, the student is possessed of some knowledge about the world. Through reflective thought, a theory or model may be developed for predicting external events. An experiment is conceived and executed. Results of the experiment are observed and compared to existing knowledge, which is updated or re-inforceds as appropriate.

The Scientific Method is a form of the Discovery Learning Model. The process of Theory ‹ Experiment ‹ Observe ‹ Revision has contributed enourmously to the accomulation of knowledge about the world in which we live.

Statistical Generalization Learning Model

2.8 Statistical Generalization Learning Model

Environment: passive
Student: passive
Interactive: no

Things happen in the world around us. If something happens once, it may never occur again. But it happens a second, third, or so forth time, then generalization may being to occur. When a sufficent number of occurances have happened, a hypothesis is formed. As additional occurances happen which do not contradict the the statement of fact, the hypothesis becomes strengthened. If contradictory occurances happen, the hypothesis is weakened, eventually to the point where it must be discarded.

Instead of abosolute truth of a fact, a level of belief is associated with it. This belief is affected not only by what we continue to observe about the world around us, but by the beliefs of other people and our level of trust in their abilities to observe and make generalizations.

Hypotheses gained by this method may be verified by other learning methods, such as Discovery or Self Test.

Learning Models Page #